Introduction to Solubility of gases in liquids
Most of the gases dissolve in water. Oxygen dissolves only to a small extent in water. It is this dissolved oxygen which sustains all aquatic life. On the other hand, hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) is highly soluble in water. Solubility of gases in liquids is greatly affected by pressure and temperature. The solubility of gases increases with the increase of pressure.
The lower part is solution and the upper part is gaseous system at pressure p and temperature T. Assume this system to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium, i.e., under these conditions rate of gaseous particles entering and leaving the solution phase is the same. Now increase the pressure over the solution phase by compressing the gas to a smaller volume in the above figure. This will increase the number of gaseous particles per unit volume over the solution and also the rate at which the gaseous particles are striking the surface of solution to enter it. The solubility of the gas will increase until a new equilibrium is reached resulting in an increase in the pressure of a gas above the solution and thus its solubility increases.
Henry’s law
The dissolution of a gas in a liquid is governed by Henry’s law, according to which, at a given temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid (p) is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas(x). And is given by
p = KH x
KH is the Henry’s law constant. Different gases have different KH values at the same temperature. This suggests that KH is a function of the nature of the gas. It is obvious from equation that higher the value of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility of the gas in the liquid. KH values for both N2 and O2 increase with increase of temperature indicating that the solubility of gases increases with decrease of temperature. It is due to this reason that aquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in warm waters.
I am planning to write more post on calculate the atomic weight of the element., Chemical Formulas and Names. Keep checking my blog.
Henry’s law finds several applications in industry . These are
To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under high pressure.
Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases while breathing air at high pressure underwater. Increased pressure increases the solubility of atmospheric gases in blood. When the divers come towards surface, the pressure gradually decreases. This releases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of bubbles of nitrogen in the blood. This blocks capillaries and creates a medical condition known as bends, which are painful and dangerous to life. To avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects of high concentrations of nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium (11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen).
At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level. This leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitudes or climbers. Low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly, symptoms of a condition known as anoxia.
Effect of Temperature on solubility of gases in liquids
Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature. When dissolved, the gas molecules are present in liquid phase and the process of dissolution can be considered similar to condensation and heat is evolved in this process. As dissolution is an exothermic process, the solubility should decrease with increase of temperature.
Sunday, June 9, 2013
Hydro Power Production
Introduction to Hydro power production:
Hydropower production refers to generation of electric power by using gravitational force of flowing or falling water which is the most widely used form of renewable energy. Hydropower production is accounted for about 88% of electricity. The growing need leads to the development of electricity generation through hydropower production. In the metropolitan areas, commercial companies constructed the hydroelectric power plants at the beginning of the twentieth century. 1,345MW hydropower production became world’s largest hydroelectric power plant in 1936. Currently, US have 2,000 hydroelectric power plants and it supplies 49% of its renewable energy sources.
Hydroelectric power production:
Methods of generation of hydro power production:
Conventional method
Pumped-storage method
Run-of-the-river method
Tide method
Production of hydropower by Run-of-the-river method:
Naturally, for the generation of electric power natural flow and elevation drop of a river are used. Projects divert some rivers flow through a pipe or through a tunnel which leads to electricity generation turbines and then return water back to the river down stream. These Run-of-the-river projects do not require a large impoundment of water hence these hydropower production plants are called as environmentally-friendly. Recently, run-of-project was proposed in British, Colombia and Canada which has been designed to generate 1027 megawatts capacity.
Run-of-the-river hydropower production plant:
Between, if you have problem on these topics Unit of Momentum, please browse expert science related websites for more help on Equation for Projectile Motion.
World’s largest hydroelectric power production plants:
Country Annual hydroelectric power production
China 585.2
Canada 368.890
Brazil 363.8
United States 250.6
Russia 167.0
Norway 140.5
India 115.6
Venezuela 86.
Japan 68.20
Sweden 64.95
Advantages of Hydropower production:
In majority of the cases, hydroelectricity is used in the elimination of cost of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal.
These hydropower production plants have longer economic lives than fuel-fired generation.
Operating cost and also labor cost is low during normal operation. These hydropower plants have relatively low construction cost.
Hydropower plants do not produce carbon dioxide directly to the nature because hydroelectric dams do not burn fossil fuels. If carbon dioxide is produced then it is in tiny fraction of the operating emissions of equivalent fossil-fuel electricity generation.
It is known as environmental-friendly because hydroelectricity produces least amount of green house gases.
Hydropower production plants provide facilities for water sports and become tourist place.
Aquaculture is also common in hydropower production plants.
These are very much useful in irrigation for agricultural purpose which provides constant water supply.
The hydropower production plants which are large can control floods.
Hydropower production refers to generation of electric power by using gravitational force of flowing or falling water which is the most widely used form of renewable energy. Hydropower production is accounted for about 88% of electricity. The growing need leads to the development of electricity generation through hydropower production. In the metropolitan areas, commercial companies constructed the hydroelectric power plants at the beginning of the twentieth century. 1,345MW hydropower production became world’s largest hydroelectric power plant in 1936. Currently, US have 2,000 hydroelectric power plants and it supplies 49% of its renewable energy sources.
Hydroelectric power production:
Methods of generation of hydro power production:
Conventional method
Pumped-storage method
Run-of-the-river method
Tide method
Production of hydropower by Run-of-the-river method:
Naturally, for the generation of electric power natural flow and elevation drop of a river are used. Projects divert some rivers flow through a pipe or through a tunnel which leads to electricity generation turbines and then return water back to the river down stream. These Run-of-the-river projects do not require a large impoundment of water hence these hydropower production plants are called as environmentally-friendly. Recently, run-of-project was proposed in British, Colombia and Canada which has been designed to generate 1027 megawatts capacity.
Run-of-the-river hydropower production plant:
Between, if you have problem on these topics Unit of Momentum, please browse expert science related websites for more help on Equation for Projectile Motion.
World’s largest hydroelectric power production plants:
Country Annual hydroelectric power production
China 585.2
Canada 368.890
Brazil 363.8
United States 250.6
Russia 167.0
Norway 140.5
India 115.6
Venezuela 86.
Japan 68.20
Sweden 64.95
Advantages of Hydropower production:
In majority of the cases, hydroelectricity is used in the elimination of cost of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal.
These hydropower production plants have longer economic lives than fuel-fired generation.
Operating cost and also labor cost is low during normal operation. These hydropower plants have relatively low construction cost.
Hydropower plants do not produce carbon dioxide directly to the nature because hydroelectric dams do not burn fossil fuels. If carbon dioxide is produced then it is in tiny fraction of the operating emissions of equivalent fossil-fuel electricity generation.
It is known as environmental-friendly because hydroelectricity produces least amount of green house gases.
Hydropower production plants provide facilities for water sports and become tourist place.
Aquaculture is also common in hydropower production plants.
These are very much useful in irrigation for agricultural purpose which provides constant water supply.
The hydropower production plants which are large can control floods.
Tuesday, June 4, 2013
Use of Insecticides
Introduction to Insecticides:
The insecticides are the chemical substances used against the insects, which inhibit the growth of insects. The ovicides and larvicides are the insecticides used against the eggs and larvae of insects respectively.
The Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and the household.
Now-a-days it is believed that the use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind the increase in agricultural productivity in the 20th century.
The insecticides are capable to significantly alter ecosystems and many are toxic to humans.
Between, if you have problem on these topics John Daltons Theory, please browse expert science related websites for more help on empirical formula chemistry.
Classification of insecticides
Insecticides are classified according to the method of application and the way they enter the insect's body:
Contact Insecticides:
These insecticides are sprayed or dusted on the insect's body and here the poison is absorbed through the body wall. The most soft-bodied insects are vulnerable to contact insecticides.
Fumigants are insecticidal gases:
Fumigants are used for the insects that are hard to reach by sprays are killed when they breathe or are exposed to the gas and these are used by professional exterminators to kill the cockroaches, bedbugs and to kill beetles in grain bins.
Residual Insecticides:
These insecticides are applied to leaves, the bodies of livestock and pets, and to the screens and walls. Here insects absorb deadly doses by touching the poisoned surface.
Stomach Insecticides:
These insecticides are applied on the surface of plants, fabrics, and wood, or are added to bait. Here the insecticide is eaten, along with the food material, by insects that chew, such as ants, caterpillars, and grasshoppers.
Systemic Insecticides:
These insecticides are absorbed by plant tissues, so that when insects feed on the sap they are poisoned.
Use of insecticides
The some important uses of insecticides are as follows:
The insecticides are used to increase yields of crops because of protection from defoliation and diseases.
These are used for the prevention of much spoilage of stored foods.
Insecticides are used for the prevention of certain diseases, which conserves health and it has saved the lives of millions of people and domestic animals.
The insecticides are the chemical substances used against the insects, which inhibit the growth of insects. The ovicides and larvicides are the insecticides used against the eggs and larvae of insects respectively.
The Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and the household.
Now-a-days it is believed that the use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind the increase in agricultural productivity in the 20th century.
The insecticides are capable to significantly alter ecosystems and many are toxic to humans.
Between, if you have problem on these topics John Daltons Theory, please browse expert science related websites for more help on empirical formula chemistry.
Classification of insecticides
Insecticides are classified according to the method of application and the way they enter the insect's body:
Contact Insecticides:
These insecticides are sprayed or dusted on the insect's body and here the poison is absorbed through the body wall. The most soft-bodied insects are vulnerable to contact insecticides.
Fumigants are insecticidal gases:
Fumigants are used for the insects that are hard to reach by sprays are killed when they breathe or are exposed to the gas and these are used by professional exterminators to kill the cockroaches, bedbugs and to kill beetles in grain bins.
Residual Insecticides:
These insecticides are applied to leaves, the bodies of livestock and pets, and to the screens and walls. Here insects absorb deadly doses by touching the poisoned surface.
Stomach Insecticides:
These insecticides are applied on the surface of plants, fabrics, and wood, or are added to bait. Here the insecticide is eaten, along with the food material, by insects that chew, such as ants, caterpillars, and grasshoppers.
Systemic Insecticides:
These insecticides are absorbed by plant tissues, so that when insects feed on the sap they are poisoned.
Use of insecticides
The some important uses of insecticides are as follows:
The insecticides are used to increase yields of crops because of protection from defoliation and diseases.
These are used for the prevention of much spoilage of stored foods.
Insecticides are used for the prevention of certain diseases, which conserves health and it has saved the lives of millions of people and domestic animals.
Heat Treatment of Carbon Steel
Introduction to the heat treatment of carbon steel
Heat treatment of carbon steel is a controlled heating and cooling of steel metal in order to alter the physical and mechanical properties without changing the original shape and size of the carbon steel. The physical and chemical properties of carbon steel are ductility, yield strength, impact resistance and it also includes the electrical and thermal conductivities of carbon steel, etc., Heat treatment of carbon steel is very important and useful in the manufacturing process and it also increases the product performance by increasing its strength. Heat treatment of carbon steel requires high carbon steels.
Please express your views of this topic Half Life Isotopes by commenting on blog.
The common heat treatment processes of carbon steel
The common heat treatment processes of carbon steel are
Softening.
Hardening.
Case Hardening.
Material modification.
The brief explanation of heat treatment of carbon steel processes:
Softening: Softening is done in order to reduce the strength or hardness of the carbon steel, to remove residual stresses, improve the toughness, restore ductility and refine grain size or may change the electromagnetic properties of the steel.
Restoring ductility or removing residual stresses is an important operation when a large amount of cold working is to be done. Annealing, normalizing, austempering, martempering, tempering and spheroidizing are the softening principals.
Hardening: Hardening of steels is carried out to increase the strength and wear properties. One of the pre-requirement for hardening the carbon steel is sufficient carbon and alloy content. If there is a sufficient amount of carbon steel can be hardened directly. Otherwise the surface part has to be enriched with carbon using some diffusion hardening treatment techniques such as carburizing.
Case hardening: This process hardens only the exterior part of the carbon steel, the carbon steel is relatively hard, it has wear resistant skin but preserving a tough and ductile nature of the interior carbon steel. Carbon steels obtained by this process are moderately hard. Alloy steels which have a better hardenability. This property of carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the good wear characteristics to the surface but leaves the core tough.
Material modification: Heat treatment of carbon steel is usually used to modify the properties of carbon steel in addition to softening and hardening. This process modifies the behavior of the carbon steel. Example is cryogenic treatment, spring aging, etc.,
I have recently faced lot of problem while learning empirical formula definition, But thank to online resources of science which helped me to learn myself easily on net.
Applications of Heat treatment of carbon steel:
Heat treatment of carbon steel is mainly used to improve the tensile strength of the steel which increases the product performance and also reduces the stress, increases the toughness of the steel.
Heat treatment of carbon steel is a controlled heating and cooling of steel metal in order to alter the physical and mechanical properties without changing the original shape and size of the carbon steel. The physical and chemical properties of carbon steel are ductility, yield strength, impact resistance and it also includes the electrical and thermal conductivities of carbon steel, etc., Heat treatment of carbon steel is very important and useful in the manufacturing process and it also increases the product performance by increasing its strength. Heat treatment of carbon steel requires high carbon steels.
Please express your views of this topic Half Life Isotopes by commenting on blog.
The common heat treatment processes of carbon steel
The common heat treatment processes of carbon steel are
Softening.
Hardening.
Case Hardening.
Material modification.
The brief explanation of heat treatment of carbon steel processes:
Softening: Softening is done in order to reduce the strength or hardness of the carbon steel, to remove residual stresses, improve the toughness, restore ductility and refine grain size or may change the electromagnetic properties of the steel.
Restoring ductility or removing residual stresses is an important operation when a large amount of cold working is to be done. Annealing, normalizing, austempering, martempering, tempering and spheroidizing are the softening principals.
Hardening: Hardening of steels is carried out to increase the strength and wear properties. One of the pre-requirement for hardening the carbon steel is sufficient carbon and alloy content. If there is a sufficient amount of carbon steel can be hardened directly. Otherwise the surface part has to be enriched with carbon using some diffusion hardening treatment techniques such as carburizing.
Case hardening: This process hardens only the exterior part of the carbon steel, the carbon steel is relatively hard, it has wear resistant skin but preserving a tough and ductile nature of the interior carbon steel. Carbon steels obtained by this process are moderately hard. Alloy steels which have a better hardenability. This property of carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the good wear characteristics to the surface but leaves the core tough.
Material modification: Heat treatment of carbon steel is usually used to modify the properties of carbon steel in addition to softening and hardening. This process modifies the behavior of the carbon steel. Example is cryogenic treatment, spring aging, etc.,
I have recently faced lot of problem while learning empirical formula definition, But thank to online resources of science which helped me to learn myself easily on net.
Applications of Heat treatment of carbon steel:
Heat treatment of carbon steel is mainly used to improve the tensile strength of the steel which increases the product performance and also reduces the stress, increases the toughness of the steel.
Stereo Chemistry
Introduction to Stereo chemistry
Isomerism is shown by compounds which have same molecular formula but different structural formula. The chemical property of the Isomers will be different. The molecular formula of an organic compound represent only the number of different atoms present in the molecule. The formula does not tell about the arrangement of the atoms. A same molecular formula can lead to the arrangement of atoms in the different manner so that they will show entirely different chemical and physical properties. This type of structure which has same molecular formula but different arrangement of atoms are called as isomers. Please express your views of this topic Types of Isotopes by commenting on blog.
There are two types of isomers
1. Structural isomers
2. Stereo isomers
Stereochemisty deals with stereo isomers. Steroisomers differ in the way the atoms are oriented in space. They have same structure but their relative orientation around the space is different. They normally have same properties.
There are two types of stereo isomers studied under Stereo chemistry. They are 1. Geometrical Isomerism 2. Optical Isomerism.
Stereo chemistry: Geometrical isomers.
Geometrical isomerism arises due to difference in the spatial arrangement of atoms or groups around the doubly bonded carbon atom. These isomers are diastereomers they are not mirror images to one other. This isomerism arises due to the lack of rotation between the carbon carbon double bond. There are two isomers one is cis and the other one is trans. Cis isomers are isomers which have same types of carbon atom in the same side of the C=C. Where as in the trans they are in the opposite side.
Is this topic Partial Pressure Formula hard for you? Watch out for my coming posts.
Stereo chemistry: Optical Isomers
Optical isomers are compound which have all the property same but one isomer will rotate the plane polarized light to left that is leveorotatory and the other isomer will rotate the plane polarized light to the right that is dextrorotatory. The important condition for an organic molecule to be optical active is that it should have a chiral carbon. Chirality or handedness is the condition in which the organic compound is non superimpossible on the mirror image. Such non superimpossible mirror images constitutes an enatiomers.
Isomerism is shown by compounds which have same molecular formula but different structural formula. The chemical property of the Isomers will be different. The molecular formula of an organic compound represent only the number of different atoms present in the molecule. The formula does not tell about the arrangement of the atoms. A same molecular formula can lead to the arrangement of atoms in the different manner so that they will show entirely different chemical and physical properties. This type of structure which has same molecular formula but different arrangement of atoms are called as isomers. Please express your views of this topic Types of Isotopes by commenting on blog.
There are two types of isomers
1. Structural isomers
2. Stereo isomers
Stereochemisty deals with stereo isomers. Steroisomers differ in the way the atoms are oriented in space. They have same structure but their relative orientation around the space is different. They normally have same properties.
There are two types of stereo isomers studied under Stereo chemistry. They are 1. Geometrical Isomerism 2. Optical Isomerism.
Stereo chemistry: Geometrical isomers.
Geometrical isomerism arises due to difference in the spatial arrangement of atoms or groups around the doubly bonded carbon atom. These isomers are diastereomers they are not mirror images to one other. This isomerism arises due to the lack of rotation between the carbon carbon double bond. There are two isomers one is cis and the other one is trans. Cis isomers are isomers which have same types of carbon atom in the same side of the C=C. Where as in the trans they are in the opposite side.
Is this topic Partial Pressure Formula hard for you? Watch out for my coming posts.
Stereo chemistry: Optical Isomers
Optical isomers are compound which have all the property same but one isomer will rotate the plane polarized light to left that is leveorotatory and the other isomer will rotate the plane polarized light to the right that is dextrorotatory. The important condition for an organic molecule to be optical active is that it should have a chiral carbon. Chirality or handedness is the condition in which the organic compound is non superimpossible on the mirror image. Such non superimpossible mirror images constitutes an enatiomers.
Magnesium Chloride Symbol
Introduction to the symbol of Magnesium Chloride:
The chemical symbol of magnesium chloride is MgCl2. The two valence electrons in the outer shell of Mg atom are taken by two Cl atoms with one valence electron each to form magnesium chloride atom. It is a white powder produced from seawater after sodium chloride has been removed, and the water evaporated. Being hygroscopic, it absorbs moisture and forms MgCl2(H2O)x .
I like to share this Magnesium Valence Electrons with you all through my article.
Properties & uses of magnesium chloride:
To form many magnesium compounds magnesium chloride has to undergo the chemical reaction. By precipitation, when MgCl2 reacts with CaCl2 , Mg(OH)2 is formed.
MgCl2 (aq) + Ca (OH)2 (aq) → Mg(OH)2(s) + CaCl2(aq)
Similarly, MgCl2 gives Mg metal when electrolyzed.
MgCl2(l) → Mg(l) + Cl2(g)
Magnesium chloride mixes with magnesium oxide in its hydrated form to form a hard cement kind of material is formed which is known as Sorel cement.
In a process known as polymerase chain reaction, magnesium chloride forms the main component in order to amplify the DNA fragments.
There are several medical uses for magnesium chloride. It can be used as magnesium supplement to produce Mg2+ ion without the requirement of stomach acid. It can also be used effectively as an anesthetic for certain species of crustaceans, cephalopods, bivalve, including oysters.
Magnesium chloride, in Japan called as nigari meaning bitter, is used to prepare tofu from soymilk. It is also used as an ingredient in bottled mineral water and baby formula milk.
Liquid magnesium chloride is used as a de-icer or anti-icer. When sprayed on dry pavement prior to freezing temperatures in the winter months, it can prevent adhering and bonding of snow to the roadway thus improving highway safety.
It is also used by road departments to control dust and erosion and helps in controlling the number of small particles which become airborne.
Having problem with Gay Lussac's Law Formula keep reading my upcoming posts, i will try to help you.
Conclusion on magnesium chloride:
Magnesium chloride can be applied in various manufacturing processes such as that of paper and textiles. It can also be used as fireproofing agents and controllers of dust. Magnesium toxicity is rare in healthy individuals with a normal diet and hence can be used to treat tumors. Any excess magnesium is readily excreted by the kidneys in the form of urine.
The chemical symbol of magnesium chloride is MgCl2. The two valence electrons in the outer shell of Mg atom are taken by two Cl atoms with one valence electron each to form magnesium chloride atom. It is a white powder produced from seawater after sodium chloride has been removed, and the water evaporated. Being hygroscopic, it absorbs moisture and forms MgCl2(H2O)x .
I like to share this Magnesium Valence Electrons with you all through my article.
Properties & uses of magnesium chloride:
To form many magnesium compounds magnesium chloride has to undergo the chemical reaction. By precipitation, when MgCl2 reacts with CaCl2 , Mg(OH)2 is formed.
MgCl2 (aq) + Ca (OH)2 (aq) → Mg(OH)2(s) + CaCl2(aq)
Similarly, MgCl2 gives Mg metal when electrolyzed.
MgCl2(l) → Mg(l) + Cl2(g)
Magnesium chloride mixes with magnesium oxide in its hydrated form to form a hard cement kind of material is formed which is known as Sorel cement.
In a process known as polymerase chain reaction, magnesium chloride forms the main component in order to amplify the DNA fragments.
There are several medical uses for magnesium chloride. It can be used as magnesium supplement to produce Mg2+ ion without the requirement of stomach acid. It can also be used effectively as an anesthetic for certain species of crustaceans, cephalopods, bivalve, including oysters.
Magnesium chloride, in Japan called as nigari meaning bitter, is used to prepare tofu from soymilk. It is also used as an ingredient in bottled mineral water and baby formula milk.
Liquid magnesium chloride is used as a de-icer or anti-icer. When sprayed on dry pavement prior to freezing temperatures in the winter months, it can prevent adhering and bonding of snow to the roadway thus improving highway safety.
It is also used by road departments to control dust and erosion and helps in controlling the number of small particles which become airborne.
Having problem with Gay Lussac's Law Formula keep reading my upcoming posts, i will try to help you.
Conclusion on magnesium chloride:
Magnesium chloride can be applied in various manufacturing processes such as that of paper and textiles. It can also be used as fireproofing agents and controllers of dust. Magnesium toxicity is rare in healthy individuals with a normal diet and hence can be used to treat tumors. Any excess magnesium is readily excreted by the kidneys in the form of urine.
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